Historians consider the true indigenous inhabitants of the African continent to be the Berbers — a people with a very rich past full of secrets and mysteries. For example, scholars do not know for certain either where the Berbers originally came to the land of Africa, or why and how they wandered, making voyages to almost every corner of the globe. Say, there are assumptions that representatives of Berber tribes reached as far as the White Sea. This fact is difficult to prove, since the Berbers left no traces of their presence in other regions.
However, one may assume that they have simply not yet been discovered. But in the places of their traditional habitation — primarily the Maghreb, that is, the region of Northwest Africa — the Berbers have since ancient times left strange structures called ksour as a reminder of themselves. Archaeologists, who first became interested in these objects at the end of the 19th century, were perplexed: whether these were fortresses, dwelling houses, or utility buildings. The correspondents of “Itogi” decided to find out what their true purpose was. Their path lay to the southern part of Tunisia — places of past and present habitation of Berber tribes.
Berber high-rises
The Mediterranean coast of Africa was settled by nomadic tribes — the Berbers — no later than the first millennium BC. Amazigh, as the Berbers still call themselves, means “free people.” Their freedom always consisted of freedom of movement, in the absence of attachment to any one locality. But the nomadic way of life is a thing of the distant past. The Berbers remained true nomads living in tents until the 7th century, until Arab military detachments came to the lands of their historical habitation. This invasion forced the Berbers to take up an uncharacteristic occupation for them — the erection of permanent structures unlike anything else. In Arabic they are called “kasbahs,” and in Berber — “ksour.” Let us clarify right away: ksour are a group of structures, the plural. In the singular, such a structure is correctly called a ksar. Such are the subtleties of Berber linguistics.
To study the ksour, we set out to the southernmost part of Tunisia — the Dahar plateau. This territory, almost directly adjacent to the great Sahara, was historically used by the Berbers for constructing their unusual buildings. Suffice it to say that on the Dahar plateau today one can count more than a dozen small and large, well-preserved and almost ruined ksour. Even local historians hardly know their exact number. For example, Dr. Hedi Ben Ouezdou from the University of Tunis, who devoted more than 20 years to studying these structures, does not take the liberty of naming an exact figure.
Armed with a detailed map and after consulting local residents, we decided to explore the ksour located in the vicinity of the town of Tataouine. This place is also notable for the fact that only here one can still see representatives of the Berber tribe living in underground houses. On the advice of the underground residents, who very cordially welcomed travelers from distant “Russia,” we first of all headed to Ksar Hadada, one of the best-preserved. Once in the inner courtyard of this structure, we immediately realized that we had never seen anything like it before in terms of architecture.
The rectangular courtyard was built up with a continuous wall of three-story rooms. Long and narrow cylindrical rooms without windows — they are called ghorfas — are piled one on top of another. Curved and, at first glance, unreliable little ladders with steps cut into the sandstone lead to the upper floors. The entrance openings of the ghorfas are in some places open to all winds, and in others locked with doors made of palm trunks. The dimensions of each ghorfa are approximately the same — 4-5 m deep and about two meters high and wide. In such a room one cannot really turn around.
- Ksar Hadada consists of a number of small sections opening onto the inner courtyard, - local historian Abdessalem Saidi explained to us. - No open rooms are visible from the outside. Thanks to its high walls reaching 10 m, the ksar resembles a defensive structure.
- Do you think the ksar could have served as a fortress for defense against enemies?
- I find it difficult to judge. My great-grandfather lived in this ksar, and I know for sure that in the 19th century this building was used exclusively for peaceful purposes, but what was before that is hard to say.
Later, when we visited several other well-preserved ksour — Ouled Soltane, El Ferch, and others not even having names — we were amazed that inside they were identical, as if built from the same template. The only difference was their layout: some were rectangular, others in the shape of a semicircle or oval.
When we asked Abdessalem Saidi what the ksour were in fact built for, he made the following assumption:
- In the south of Tunisia, at different times, one could meet representatives of the most diverse Berber tribes: Kabyles, Tamazight, Tuaregs. Sedentary Berbers, unlike nomadic ones, have always been more cautious, prudent, fearing possible attacks from outside. And if a Berber village was built in a valley, then the ksar, as a rule, was built on a rise. Why? Suppose that in troubled times they took refuge in the ksar from enemies, and in peaceful times, for example, stored food — grain or olive oil. Products in the ksour could lie there and not spoil for up to seven years. And in secret rooms, which were called hannaba or kammala, they hid some valuable things. And invaders had little chance of discovering such corners. Try to find them if the total number of ghorfas in the ksar is no fewer than 150. Somewhere there are 200, and somewhere, as in the ksar of Ouled Soltane, almost four hundred.
Invisible fortresses
Only what has an explanation does not surprise. Ksour as a phenomenon of history and architecture do not lend themselves to quick explanation. Although, it would seem, what is so special about them — a recurring composition, undoubtedly a simple construction technology, but just try and guess for what needs these “honeycombs” were built. By the way, a very apt definition — bee honeycombs. Ghorfas are attached to one another in sections, so densely and reliably that they were sure to last for centuries.
Still, there are doubts that these ancient austere buildings served as support and bulwark for the Berbers during enemy invasions. The outer walls, of course, cannot be scaled in a sudden attack (they are half the height of the Kremlin wall), but they lack the attributes befitting any fortress wall: neither arrow slits nor towers. There is no corresponding moat around them, no drawbridge. On the other hand, this is quite justified. The ksour, although they tried to be built where there were some water sources, naturally that water would never have been enough to fill a moat. In general, this condition is not at all obligatory for desert castles. Rather, as fortifications one can consider the ksour located not on the plain but on elevations. In this area, on the Dahar plateau, the mountain ksour stand at approximately the same altitude — 600-700 m above sea level. They deserve a special story.
...We leave behind kilometer after kilometer of the trans-Saharan highway. Outside the windows of our jeep, the landscape alternately rises and softly dips, which would be best described as Martian. And although the surface of Mars looks completely different, as proven by the images from the Opportunity probe, there is something cosmic about this landscape. Not for nothing did George Lucas shoot his “Star Wars” here.
We would have gone on staring around for a long time, overcoming the drowsiness that from time to time assailed us, had our driver (I cannot reproduce his name, because, believe me, no matter how hard I tried, I never managed to pronounce it) not slowed down and drawn our attention to one of the roadside hills, unremarkable in appearance and indeed not differing at all from the others. “Ksar,” he waved his hand toward that hill. We stopped and only then, on closer inspection, discerned the outlines of some building among the monotonous landscape.
So, perhaps, here lies the secret of the ksour — a simple secret and at the same time one capable of confusing even a cunning enemy. Let us suppose that the plain ksour played the role of a decoy. They are in plain sight and at first glance impregnable, but that is only at first glance. Having worn out their strength in besieging them and, as a result, having obtained them at their disposal, the conquerors gave themselves over to the passion of plunder. What did they care where the owners of these “provision depots” had gone?! After all, the attackers were interested in material values — first of all food and livestock. They were quite content with the booty.
Meanwhile, the true owners of the plain ksour left their villages and took refuge in the mountain ksour, which can with full right be called their reliable refuges. First, they were practically invisible — real invisible fortresses. One must have an eagle eye to discern these structures among the uniform landscape. Second, the mountain ksour were indeed a tough nut to crack. Located at altitude, they effectively held back any attacks. Their siege, apparently, could last for months and, quite possibly, to no avail. Like a turtle under its shell, the Berbers in the mountain ksour could wait as long as they pleased until the danger passed. Supplies of food and water in their fortresses, likely, were abundant. What also confirms our assumptions is that, according to Dr. Hedi Ben Ouezdou, historians do not know of a single case where a mountain ksar fell under the blows of aggressors. For if such a thing had happened, traces of such an attack would have been preserved on the ground, but we have found not a single destroyed ksar. Archaeologists also know of no such facts. Those ksour that are decaying and losing the grandeur of their walls under the blows of time do not count.
So let us dare to draw the following conclusion: the plain ksour had exclusively economic significance and were used — almost for the first time in world history — as fortified provision stores or warehouses for strategic reserves, emergency stockpiles. The mountain ksour, in turn, could also serve as warehouses, but they were nevertheless built initially for fortification purposes. This is indicated both by their camouflage blending with the terrain and by the notable strength and height of their walls.
It was the mountain ksour, according to Hedi Ben Ouezdou, that could have served as forward defensive structures. The question remains: to what era can their construction be attributed? There is, for example, a paradoxical hypothesis that originally these were not Berber fortifications at all, but Roman ones, built approximately in the 2nd-3rd centuries AD to defend against... Berber raids. For instance, the ksour of Tarsin and Ghilane could well have been Roman forts, since they were located on territory that belonged to Roman possessions. The Berbers simply could not have built on these lands at that time. Unlike the mountain ones, the plain ksour are not so ancient. The construction of the ksar of Ouled Soltane dates to the 16th century. The ksar of Aouadid was built about 250 years ago, and Jouamaa — 240 years ago.
According to Hedi Ben Ouezdou, the plain ksour represent the final phase in the evolution of such structures. This means that the traditions of their construction, laid down in the distant past, were used, almost without changing, for quite a long time. And they are partly used to this day.