From the very beginning, the influx of immigrants forced the old-timers of the New World to think about ways to counteract the unimpeded access of new settlers to American territory. In 1639, British colonial authorities prohibited criminals and beggars from moving to the North American colonies. However, this embargo did not have much effect. Nine years after the United States gained independence, the U.S. Congress gave the president the unconditional right to deport "dangerous foreigners" from the country, considering those who, through their actions, harm the state and its citizens.
Nevertheless, for a long time, immigration policy was in the hands of individual states, with federal authorities regulating only the process of obtaining U.S. citizenship. Immigrants were mainly brought in to develop new lands, while the authorities tried to prevent the arrival of large numbers of incapacitated newcomers. In Virginia, for example, a curious law was in effect: it stipulated that every immigrant who paid for their own passage would receive a land grant of 50 acres from the state.
The issue of granting American citizenship to foreigners underwent notable changes. In 1790, it was possible to become a U.S. citizen after two years of continuous residence in the United States, provided there were no legal problems. In 1798, the waiting period was extended to 14 years, and in 1802, it was reduced to five (this norm is still in effect today).
Each new wave of immigrants faced prejudice from old-timers. In the mid-19th century, all Irish immigrants were considered drunkards. At the beginning of the 20th century, it was believed that Poles, Russians, Jews, and Italians were too different from the local population, their customs and traditions having little in common with American ways, so they had very little chance of successfully integrating into American society. Today, similar accusations are directed at people from Asia and Latin America. The attitude of American society toward immigrants has changed depending on the state of the American economy. When the U.S. is going through hard times, society views newcomers with disapproval. If the situation improves, foreigners moving to the U.S. receive a far warmer welcome.
The first legislative act purposefully restricting immigration to the country was passed in 1875: prostitutes and people who had previously committed crimes were prohibited from moving to the U.S. In 1882, a law was passed that forbade Chinese people from moving to the U.S. (the pretext was the pogroms against Chinese in several American towns). Those Chinese who were already living in the U.S. were banned from applying for American citizenship. This law was adopted due to the influx of Chinese workers (coolies), who were considered the cheapest labor and were brought in to build railroads. U.S. lawmakers believed that the presence of Chinese negatively affected the unemployment rate and wages of "native" Americans. Only in 1943 was this law repealed.
The first immigration law was passed in 1882. It provided for the establishment of control over the "quality" of immigrants (implying that the country needed hardworking specialists, not idlers), and also banned the entry of the mentally ill and mentally disabled. This law also introduced a tax of 50 cents on each arriving immigrant. By the way, the tax still exists today, but it is now considered a consular fee necessary for obtaining a visa. For the first time, immigrants began to answer officials' questions regarding their past and plans in the U.S., as well as undergo medical examinations. In 1891, another law was passed, which added to the blacklist the sick (the list of diseases that disqualified one from moving to the U.S. included tuberculosis, syphilis, and trachoma), the poor, and polygamists. The law also established a mandatory medical examination procedure for newly arrived immigrants, which still exists today. Starting in the 1990s, the U.S. banned the entry of HIV-infected people and those with AIDS. These measures reduced the level of immigration to the U.S., but not for long.
By that time, the U.S. had become incredibly attractive to residents of other countries. Between 1830 and 1880, the U.S. population grew by 400% (for comparison, the population of France increased by 17%). The U.S. was winning the economic competition with the world's most powerful nations: for instance, between 1850 and 1880, the volume of industrial production of the then superpower — the British Empire — increased by 300%, while for the U.S. this figure was 600%. In the early 1880s, the length of railway tracks in the U.S. was twice that of all railroads in Europe (data from historian David Potter's book "People of Plenty"). Additionally, the U.S. pursued a policy of religious tolerance, which attracted many adherents of persecuted religions and sects.
At the beginning of the 20th century, a new wave of immigrants swept over the U.S. This time, authorities denied entry to epileptics, tuberculosis patients, the insane, beggars, anarchists, and persons with mental and physical disabilities that "might affect their ability to earn a living." In 1917, the U.S. placed an additional barrier before Indians, Burmese, Thais, Malays, Arabs, and Afghans. Additionally, every newly arrived settler was required to take an English language test.
In 1924, a fundamentally new restriction was introduced. U.S. authorities granted citizens of each country an immigration quota. It was determined based on the results of the next census. However, de facto the state gave preference to Europeans. In 1934, the Philippines, formerly a U.S. colony, gained independence. At the same time, serious restrictions on moving to the U.S. were introduced for Filipinos, who had previously been considered Americans. With some changes, the quota system is still in effect today.
In 1980, a special law 'On Refugees' (Refugee Act) was adopted, establishing rules for their admission. The Nationality and Immigration Act underwent some changes in 1990. For the first time, it contained provisions that allowed preventing entry into the United States or deporting persons suspected of ties with terrorists.
Since 1994, a law has been in effect under which foreigners who arrive in the United States without documents can be immediately deported from the country, except in cases where they apply for political asylum and prove that if they return to their home country, they face persecution on racial, religious, national, or similar grounds. The law states that a foreigner can request political asylum in the United States after setting foot on American territory. As a result, thousands of Cubans annually try to reach the United States on makeshift floating devices. The U.S. Coast Guard tries to intercept them – those caught in the ocean are returned to the Island of Freedom. Only those who touch American shores have a chance to obtain political asylum. In the same year, the U.S. Congress created a new type of visa (the so-called S category visa), granted to persons who can testify in court proceedings related to terrorism or organized crime.
In 1996, after a major terrorist attack in Oklahoma City (initially it was believed that the bomb was prepared by people from the Middle East – later it turned out that the terrorist was a native-born American), the United States again tightened immigration legislation. Congress then passed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act, which, in particular, significantly simplified the deportation regime for undesirable foreigners.
As Roger Daniels, author of the extensive study 'Arriving in America,' notes, Americans have traditionally treated new waves of immigrants worse than old ones. One reason is that newcomers tend to settle with their compatriots, forming unique ethnic enclaves in the United States. New Americans are generally less educated, earn less, and often join criminal groups. However, data from a study supporting the positive role of immigrants in the American economy shows that cities in the United States with the highest percentage of immigrants (for example, New York – 43% of its residents were born outside the United States and another 9.2% were born to immigrant families, or Los Angeles, where one in ten residents has recently moved to the United States) have the lowest unemployment rates and the highest economic growth rates. At the same time, the influx of immigrants significantly reduces unemployment among the native-born population.
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, foreigners working in the United States earn less than their American colleagues. This relationship holds for people with any level of education. The average foreign-born worker aged 25 and older, working full-time, earned $543 per week in 2005, while an American with similar characteristics earned $724. Earnings naturally depend on education level. People with only primary education earn $385 (foreigner) – $442 (American) per week. Completing some high school allows moving to a higher pay level: $385 (foreigner) – $442 (American). High school education guarantees a transition to the next level: $496 (foreigner) and $594 (American). Some college further raises rates: $592 (foreigner) and $679 (American). A college diploma brings a foreigner $960 per week, an American $1,023.
Currently, about 28% of foreigners working in the United States (legal and illegal immigrants, temporary workers, and others) do not have a completed high school education. For Americans, this figure is 7%. However, the share of people with higher education in both population groups is roughly equal – 31% and 33% respectively. At the same time, in 2005, only 4.6% of foreigners were unemployed (for native-born U.S. residents, this figure was 5.2%).
Ever since the founding of the United States, ethnic communities that formed there have influenced American politics. For example, influential Jewish immigrants in 1869 prompted President Ulysses Grant to defend Syrian Jews accused of ritual murder, and later the United States defended Jews suffering from pogroms in the Russian Empire. The Italian community is also largely responsible for shaping U.S. European policy. For instance, thanks to its efforts during World War II, when the United States was at war with Italy, no anti-Italian sentiment arose in the United States, and after the war ended, both countries quickly established bilateral relations.